ACTIONAL FUNCTIONAL MODEL (AFM)

V

ACTIONAL FUNCTIONAL MODEL

(AFM): COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

1. BACKGROUND

As a reaction to Audio Lingual Method and Cognitive Learning Theories and as a response to Noam Chomsky’s structural linguistic theory, the origin of Communicative Language Teaching began in the late 1960’s. British applied linguists realized the need to focus language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mastery of structures.

A British linguist, Wilkins (1972), proposes communicative functions of language that serves as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching. According to Wilkins, there are two types of meaning: 1) notional categories, and 2) communicative function categories. These two types were revised into a book called “Notional Syllabuses”.

Anthropological linguists, e.g. Hymes 1972, and Firthean linguists, e.g., Holiday, (1973) view language first and foremost as system for communication.

2. AIMS

Wilkins (1976) aims at:

a. Making communicative competence the goal of language teaching.

b. Developing procedures for the teaching of the four skills.

Littlewood (1981) states that one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. He distinguishes two versions of communicative language teaching: the weak version which stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use the target language for communicative purpose, and the strong version which advances the claim that the language is acquired through communication.

3. APPROACH

a. Theory of Language

The communicative approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop communicative competence. Hymes (1968) describes the seven basic functions of language as follows:

(a) The instrumental function

(b) The regulatory function

(c) The interactional function

(d) The personal function

(e) The heuristic function

(f) The imaginative function

(g) The representational function

A more recent analysis of communicative competence is found in Savignon (1983), in which four dimensions of communicative competence are defined:

(1) Grammatical competence refers to linguistic competence.

(2) Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of social contexts.

(3) Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of an individual message.

(4) Strategic competence refers to the coping or survival strategies used to sustain communication.

Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language are:

(1) Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

(2) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

(3) The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

(4) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and Structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.

b. Theory of Learning

Some elements of an underlying learning theory might be described as:

(1) The communication principles: activities that involve real communication promote learning.

(2) The task principle activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.

(3) The meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

These principles can be inferred from CLT practices.

4. DESIGNS

a. Objective

The objectives of a communicative approach are categorized in the following levels:

(1) An integrative and content level (language as a means of expression);

(2) A linguistic and instrumental level (language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)

(3) An effective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct (language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others);

(4) A level of individual learning needs (remedial learning)

(5) A general educational level of extralinguistic goals (language learning within the school curriculum).

b. Syllabus

One of the first syllabus models is a Notional Syllabus (Wilkins, 1976) which specifies the semantic- grammatical categories and the categories of communicative function that the learners need to express. The council of Europe expands it into Threshold Level English.

c. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative approach is unlimited. Littlewood (1981) distinguishes two major activity types in Communicative Language Teaching:

(1) Functional Communication Activities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and nothing similarities and differences.

(2) Social Interaction and activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations, skills, improvisations and debates.

d. Learner Roles

The emphasis of CLT on the process of communication leads to different roles of learner. The role of learner as a negotiator emerges from the role of joint negotiators within the group. The learners are expected to interact primarily with each other and correction of errors may be absent or infrequent.

e. Teacher Roles

The teacher has two main roles: to facilitate the communication process and to act as an independent participant within the learning teaching group A third role is that of researcher and learner. Other roles assumed for the teacher are as a counselor and a group process manager.

f. Roles of Instructional Materials

Materials are used to support communicative approaches to language teaching. So, the materials have role of promoting communicative language use. There are three kinds of materials used in CLT: (a) Text-based materials, such as textbook; (b) task-based materials, such as games, role plays simulations; and (c) Realia, that is of ‘authentic”, ‘from life’ materials, such as signs, gesture, magazines, newspaper, graphics.

5. Features of Communicative Language Teaching

Because communicative principles can be applied to the teaching of any skills at any levels, and because of the wide variety of classroom activities and exercise types, description of typical classroom procedures based on CLT principles is not feasible.

Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) contrast the major distinctive features of ALM and Communicative Language Teaching as follows:

AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

1	ALM attends to structure and form.	Meaning is paramount.
2	Demands memorization of structure based dialogues.	Dialogues center on communicative functions.
3	Language items are not contextualized.	Contextualized is a basic premise
4	Language learning is learning to learn structures, words, and sounds.	Language learning is learning to communicate
5	Mastery of forms is sought.	Effective communication is sought.
6	Drilling is a central technique.	Drills occurs peripherally
7	Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.	Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
8	Grammatical explanation is needed.	Any device which helps learners is accepted.
9	Communication activities come after a long process of drills and exercises.	Students attempt to communicate from the very beginning.
10	L1 is forbidden.	L1 is accepted where it is feasible.
11	Translation is forbidden.	Translation may be used.
12	Reading and writing are differed.	Reading and writing start from the first day.
13	Students learn L2 through overt teaching of patterns.	Students learn L2 through communication process.
14	Linguistic competence is the goal.	Communicative competence is the goal
15	Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.	Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology.
16	The sequence of units is determined by principle of linguistic complexity.	The sequence is determined by consideration of content, function, and meaning.
17	The teacher controls the learner from doing any conflict.	The teacher helps learners to motivate them to work with the language.
18	Errors must be presented.	Language is created through trial and errors.
19	Accuracy is the primary goal.	Fluency is the primary goal.
20	Students interact with the language system.	Students interact with other people.
21	The teacher specifies the language that students must use.	The teacher cannot know what language the students will use.
22	Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.	The intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated.